4-14-02
Liver Disease
in Camelids
David E
Anderson, D.V.M., MS, Diplomate ACVS
College of Veterinary Medicine
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Liver
disease has not been widely recognized in camelids (alpacas and llamas).
Although fatty liver disease is often discussed or observed during necropsy
examination, primary liver diseases have been infrequently diagnosed. Recent
clinical data suggest that the cause of fatty liver disease may have been
overlooked in many camelids. Because camelids are not used for intensive meat or
milk production in North America and they usually are not overworked by riding
or carting, theories postulated for onset of liver disease in other livestock
species may not apply to camelids. Investigations of camelid disease is in its
infancy in the USA, and I expect that significant breakthroughs are on the
horizon. We have begun investigations at Ohio State University to attempt to
better determine the response of camelids to disease and stress.
HISTORICAL INFORMATION
I often find evidence of liver disease in camelids while working-up a case of
what might be termed "Sick Camelid Syndrome" or SCS. SCS refers to a
camelid that demonstrates depression, lethargy, increased periods of recumbency,
and decreased appetite. Occasionally diarrhea or abdominal discomfort are
observed. The results of physical examination fail to reveal any abnormalities
except that the animal may be more tender to palpation of the abdomen than
normal. In my opinion, laboratory testing of these animals is obligatory because
of the stoic nature of these patients. A camelid may not show clinical signs of
severe disease in a desperate attempt not to be singled out from the herd as a
"weakened" animal by potential predators. The most important
information to be gained by veterinarians from the owner is a detailed account
of the animals recent lifestyle. Any changes should be discussed (nutrition,
herd mates, feed bags, traveling to shows / sales / new farm, breeding activity,
importation and quarantine, de-worming and vaccines or lack thereof, obesity,
heat stress, emaciation, etc). Most cases of liver disease are found to be
caused by or exacerbated by stress.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION AND
CLINICAL SIGNS
A thorough physical examination is required to rule-out common causes of illness
in camelids: parasites, GI disturbance, C3 ulcer, starvation or malnutrition,
social hierarchy, dental problems (tooth root abscess, malocclusion, etc),
neurologic disease (meningeal worm, trauma, infection), pneumonia, etc. Rectal
temperature, heart rate and rhythm, respiratory rate and pattern, C1 motility
frequency and pattern, fecal consistency / color, urine color / clarity,
peripheral lymph node palpation, and oral examination are the minimum veterinary
data base. Clinical signs will dictate additional diagnostic tests, but most
suffer from Sick Camelid Syndrome and, therefore, I routinely perform a complete
blood cell count and serum biochemistry profile. I have seen many camelids
suffering from severe liver disease demonstrate clinical signs of acute
abdominal pain. These patients must be accurately differentiated from surgical
colic because the stress of surgery and general anesthesia is extremely
detrimental to patients with liver disease.
I have a liver and kidney profile run which includes SDH, GGT, AST, CPK,
triglycerides, cholesterol, Cr, and BUN. SDH and GGT are cellular enzymes that
provide a reflection of the severity of liver damage. AST and CPK are cellular
enzymes that reflect muscle injury and allow some assessment for how long and
how often the camelid has been lying down. Triglyceride and cholesterol are
components of fat and provide an assessment of how much lipid mobilization is
occurring. Creatinine and BUN are products of protein metabolism that are
excreted by the kidneys and allow evaluation of general kidney function. I have
found that rising BUN and Cr despite supportive therapy is a poor prognostic
indicator. Electrolytes and bicarbonate status are evaluated because worsening
acidosis, increasing GGT, and increasing Cr despite supportive care are
indicators of a grave prognosis for survival.
Although viral and bacterial hepatitis are occasionally diagnosed in camelids,
secondary bacterial infection is most common. Of particular concern is invasion
of clostridia. Therefore, the complete blood cell count is evaluated for
evidence of bacterial infection and the PCV and total protein examined. I have
found that a rising PCV in the presence of a falling T.P. is a grave prognostic
indicator. Also, I use blood immunoglobulin concentration as a screening tool to
evaluate immune system status.
ETIOLOGIC INVESTIGATIONS:
DIAGNOSIS?
Diagnosis of the cause of liver disease in camelids can be an exercise in
frustration. Histopathology (microscopic examination of liver tissue by means of
liver biopsy) usually is not specific: hepatic lipidosis, biliary hyperplasia,
lymphocytic plasmacytic hepatitis are common findings. Occasionally
cholangiohepatitis (infection of the bile ducts) or cholestasis (obstruction to
bile flow) are diagnosed from biopsy. Although histopathology often does not
provide a definitive diagnosis, the information gained is well worth the effort.
Because few specific liver diseases have been described for camelids,
differential diagnoses should be broad in range: metabolic (e.g., fatty liver,
cirrhosis), parasitic (e.g., liver flukes), toxic (e.g., mycotoxin, endotoxin,
clostridium spp), bacterial (e.g., Salmonella spp, Clostridial spp, E coli),
viral (e.g., adenovirus), fungal (e.g., Coccidioides imitis), and tumors or
cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma). I routinely perform ultrasound guided
percutaneous liver biopsy and obtain samples for histopathology, virology, and
bacteriology. Recently, a picornavirus has been identified at Cornell University
(Dr. Susan Stehman and colleagues) which appears to cause pancreatitis and
destruction of insulin producing islet cells. The result of this is insulin
dependent diabetes mellitus which can lead to ketoacidosis and death.
TREATMENT STRATEGY
Treatment is directed at supportive care unless a more specific diagnosis can be
determined. Antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, fluid therapy (I prefer oral
fluids when possible), glucose supplementation, and pain therapy are useful for
treatment of severe liver disease. Insulin therapy must be used judiciously so
that a harmful decrease in blood glucose does not occur. When used, intravenous
fluids must be administered cautiously because camelids readily develop low
blood protein with liver disease. Anti-ulcer prophylaxis is critical to prevent
clostridial overgrowth. I prefer to use omiprazole because this drug is more
potent than Tagamet. Clostridial antitoxins or vaccination may be useful to
bolster immunity.
The most critical factor for treatment of camelids with liver disease is to keep
them eating. If appetite is suppressed, transfaunation (administration of the
rumen fluid from a cow into the stomach) is a potent appetite stimulant. Other
options include bacterial supplements products (such as probios), yogurt,
B-complex vitamins, use of a companion animal, and offering a variety of feeds
including frequent grazing. Camelids may lay down and refuse to get up if
isolated in a stall. These animals should be walked, grazed, and a companion
animal kept with them to prevent this cycle from starting. I have had the most
success reversing liver disease in camelids by increasing the energy density of
the diet (originally suggested by Dr. Norman Evans). I recommend that a glucose
enriched electrolyte water be available at all times. Calf electrolyte solutions
are excellent, but many of my clients have used Gator aid and similar products.
Energy density may be increased in the diet by supplementing sweetfeed, dried
molasses, syrup, etc. These supplements should be made available until liver
enzymes have returned to normal.
PREVENTION OF LIVER DISEASE
I have performed extensive investigations into copper toxicity, mycotoxin
contamination, parasite infestation, water source contamination, and have found
that most cases of liver disease can not be readily explained. Therefore,
recommendations for prevention are difficult. Probably, the most significant
factor in the prevention of liver disease is to prevent sustained stress. I have
found that the most severe cases of liver disease have been in camelids
suffering severe, long-term stress. An example would be a llama or alpaca that
is acquired in Peru, moved to a quarantine station in Peru, examined and treated
several times by veterinarians and animal handlers, moved to a quarantine
station in the United States, moved to a farm for sale, sold at auction, moved
to the farm of final destination, entered into a new herd to establish a new
social hierarchy, and, finally entered into the breeding pool. These events
occur over approximately 8 to 12 months. Hepatic lipidosis is the most common
consequence even in relatively thin animals. A common misconception is that
fatty liver disease is a disease of overweight camelids. I have found that these
are the exception, not the rule. To prevent the development of these adverse
effects, the environment in which the animals are moved should be as free from
stress as possible, animals should be vaccinated with 7-way or 8-way clostridial
vaccines, high quality grass hay or grass should be available at all times, and
a trace mineral mix should be available.
When I see fatty liver disease occurring in domestic camelids, I believe that
the nutritional program should be intensively investigated. If the feed source
has changed recently, a feed analysis is indicated to determine if the feed is
low in digestible energy. The best indicator of the adequacy of the diet is to
analyze mineral content in liver biopsies. Research done at Ohio State
University investigated the effects of repeated liver biopsies. Despite
performing biopsies at weekly intervals, no adverse effects were observed (in
fact the animals gained an average of 5 pounds!). However, I recommend whole
blood analysis of minerals if the animal in question is pregnant. Research done
at Ohio State University has documented that Alpacas are quite resistant to
fumonisin (a type of mycotoxin) intoxication. We fed up to 75 parts per million
of fumonisin for up to 30 days with no adverse effects on the serum
biochemistry, complete blood cell counts, and liver tissues. We are continuing
to investigate liver disease and nutrition in camelids at Ohio State University.
Research is critical to determine the cause of liver disease in these animals
because the initial cause is usually past by the time your veterinarian gets
involved in the case. Some very exciting research is being done in similar areas
at Cornell University, Oregon State University, Auburn University, and Colorado
State University. Hopefully, we will have better answers for you in coming
years!
Action Plan for
Camelids (Alpacas, Llamas) Affected with
Acute Death Associated with Liver Disease
David E
Anderson, D.V.M., MS, Diplomate ACVS
College of Veterinary Medicine
The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
CONTROL AND SURVEILLANCE
TREATMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS
Views on Fatty Liver Disease
David E. Anderson, DVM, MS, Diplomate ACVS,
Bradford B. Smith, DVM, PhD
Susan Tornquist, DVM, PhD
Robert Van Saun, DVM, PhD
Few diseases that can strike alpacas (and llamas) are
as insidious as fatty liver disease. An alpaca farm that has all the good
management signs of a tidy, well-run operation can lose animals to this disease
as readily as a casually run operation scorned by neighboring breeders.
Animals in good body condition can be struck by it,
though often animals with low body scores are susceptible. The mechanisms
setting the disease into motion aren’t entirely understood, other than that
diets low in protein and other essential elements create risk. The disease
doesn’t normally occur until after a significant amount of time on a deficient
diet. Often once one animal is stricken others follow. Any breeder experiencing
a death to fatty liver disease should assume that other animals experiencing the
same diet and exposure to stressors are at risk and consult a veterinarian.
The disease often appears in those alpacas in a
population experiencing the most stress. A recent outbreak occurred in a group
of lactating females a week after the onset of cold and wet weather. Animals not
lactating in the same herd suffered no ill effects. Apparently the lactating
females’ bodies were working overtime to supply milk to their crias. Later
testing indicated that the rye hay they were fed contained only about 8 percent
protein. Also, the animals were receiving a daily grain/pellet supplement.
Shortly after the onset of cold weather one lactating
female slowly quit eating and became sluggish. Her symptoms grew more severe. A
slight yellow cast in skin near her eyes and in her mouth appeared, indicating
poor liver function, which blood test also verified. Unfortunately, the focus on
strategies to cope with her problems began too late. The animal died in three
days, at which time a second animal showed the same symptoms and died two days
later.
A rapid analysis of feed was conducted. Herd owners
were shocked to learn that the hay in use contained only 8 percent protein.
Earlier shipments from the same supplier had always contained 12 to 15 percent
protein. The lesson learned is that even with the same supplier and the same hay
type, there are no guarantees feed will have the same nutritional quality from
year to year. The hay in question looked very edible and was readily consumed by
animals exposed to it. The grower had assured the alpaca breeder that the hay
was "good quality
and like past years." It turned out that because of floods that tore
away topsoil, the hay was not properly fertilized and subpar.
Other alpaca ranches also using the hay were
contacted. None had lactating females, but one ranch attributed an animal’s
death to fatty liver disease.
All involved farms abandoned their hay and absorbed
the loss. All alpacas on several different ranches were given a richer hay
(50-50 orchard-alfalfa mix) that tested at about 15 percent protein. Before the
arrival of the new hay, monitoring of enzyme activities indicated that other
animals had impaired liver functions and were on the verge of succumbing to the
disease. After three weeks on the new diet all of the affected animals’ liver
functions returned to normal.
In part the problem in the herd described above was exasperated by research and rhetoric in llama nutrition that emphasized the problem of obesity in llama herds. In the llama business the emphasis on a nutritionally balanced but not-rich diet to avoid obesity may not be as applicable to alpacas. In fact, several leading camelid veterinarians feel that alpacas may indeed thrive on a richer diet than llamas do. The two species have different dietary preferences in South America. One California breeder who has llamas and alpacas found that when he maintained both on the same diet (14 to 20 percent protein), for the most part alpacas maintained optimum body condition and llamas became obese. Could it be the two species have somewhat different dietary needs? At this time these observations are anecdotal, but research occurring at Oregon State University and Ohio State University will likely lend more understanding to the dietary needs of alpacas and how they may differ from those of llamas. —Editor
Hepatic Lipidosis in the Camelid: A Different Perspective
Bradford B. Smith, DVM, PhD
Susan Tornquist, DVM, PhD
Robert Van Saun, DVM, PhD
What is hepatic lipidosis?
As they say in the advertising field, the name says it all. Hepatic means liver; lipidosis means an accumulation of lipids or fats. Functionally it is a condition in which the liver has accumulated a large quantity of fat within the cells.
If you microscopically examine a normal liver, you
will see all the usual components of a cell, including such structures
(organelles) as the nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and an occasional lipid
(fat) droplet. The liver is one of the most metabolically active tissues in the
body and plays a central role in fat metabolism, converting the lipids from one
form to another as needed.
Hepatic lipidosis occurs when the amount of fat accumulating in the liver becomes excessive, compromising liver function. In this case, most of the cell becomes filled with fat droplets and the normal functions of the cell are impaired. As a consequence, the normal role of the liver in clearing toxins and other waste products is impaired, the byproducts accumulate in the blood, and the animal dies as a result of liver failure.
Understanding why apparently normal animals can have
no evidence of problems and then die within a period of 3 to 4 days from acute
liver failure is perplexing; even more perplexing is the apparent absence of
other identifiable problems in most cases.
The first step in sorting out this mystery has been
to take a retrospective look at what we know about the problem. To this end Dr.
Sue Tornquist, head of Clinical Pathology at Oregon State University (OSU),
called up the medical records of twenty-six llamas and alpacas with a
histopathologic diagnosis (that is, the diagnosis was based upon a microscopic
examination of the tissues and not just a gross anatomical evaluation) of
hepatic lipidosis during the period from 1991 to 1997. Of the 771 llama and
alpaca submissions to the OSU Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory during this
period, hepatic lipidosis was identified in twenty-six, or 3.4 percent, of the
cases. When the twenty-six cases were more closely examined, the following
observations emerged:
Sex:
Twenty-two (or 88 percent of the group) were females, a significantly higher
percentage of females than in the original 771 submissions.
Physiologic
state: Twelve of the affected animals were known to be pregnant (52 percent of
the females), and ten were known to be lactating (43 percent of the females).
Age:
Ages of animals with hepatic lipidosis ranged from 5 months to 18 years of age,
with a mean age and standard deviation of 7.1 ±4.6 years (66 percent of the
population). In contrast, only 14 percent of the reference population in which
ages were known were between 6 and 10 years of age.
Presenting
signs: Although thorough history, physical exam findings, and laboratory data
were not available for all cases, the most common factors were
•
A history of recent severe anorexia or weight loss in 58 percent of the cases
•
Neurologic signs including incoordination, blindness, and head pressing in 27
percent of the animals
Other changes were either agonal or present in only a
few animals.
Interpretation
This retrospective work suggested that hepatic
lipidosis was primarily a disease of middle-aged llamas and alpacas, with a
substantially higher incidence in females, particularly females with a high
metabolic demand such as late-term pregnancy and/or heavy lactation. These
observations, coupled with the lack of other consistent histopathologic changes
or evidence of bacterial or viral infections, has suggested that the problem may
be primarily nutritional and/or metabolic in nature.
Clinical Cases
Retrospective studies tell only a portion of the
story and don’t provide good information about the development of the problem.
Herd outbreaks in the past several years have given us a better understanding of
the dynamics of the problem within a herd, such as timeframes for the
development of the problems, clinical changes, and alterations in blood
parameters. To address this point, the following is a brief description of four
herd outbreaks we have seen in the past couple of years.
Case
1: Four llamas developed the problem within a 4-week period. Although the
quality of the forage was good, the volume of feed being provided was very low.
No toxins
were identified. Other than insufficient
feed, no additional stress factors were
identified.
Case
2: Three female llamas developed hepatic lipidosis within a few weeks. All of
the animals were lactating, and the forage quality was high. The onset of the
problem coincided with a shift to very high temperatures. Changes in the weather
and social hierarchy were identified as possible factors leading to decreased
forage consumption.
Case
3: Three lactating female alpacas died within a short period of time. The onset
appears to have been correlated with a shift to cold weather. The forage quality
appears to have been marginal though supplement had been offered to compensate.
Two animals were in good condition at onset of disease.
Case
4: A group of seven llamas died within a 3-week period. This was the only
outbreak in which most of the animals were males. Unlike the females in the
other cases, which for the most part were over conditioned, in this situation
the pastures and hay were of poor to very poor quality and most of the animals
were moderately to severely under conditioned.
Interpretations
All these cases support our view that we are primarily dealing with a metabolic disease with underlying nutritional problems, specifically that the animals are in a condition of very high energy demand and are not able to meet this need in an appropriate manner. As a result of the increased energy needs, more and more fat is mobilized. For reasons that are not clearly understood, the liver is unable to handle the increased demand for energy and responds by inappropriately increasing the amount of fat stored in the liver—ultimately resulting in liver failure.
A couple of important caveats about this
interpretation:
•
Inappropriate energy and/or protein metabolism as the cause of the problem is a
theory—not a fact—and needs to be carefully examined.
•
In all cases, the problem appears to have a stress component, such as changes in
social conditions, dramatic changes in the weather, or restricted food
availability. While stress appears to be a triggering device, its role in the
development of the problem is unclear.
Questions, Projects, and Research
It was against this background that Susan Tornquist,
Bob Van Saun, and I developed a research protocol to examine the metabolic basis
for hepatic lipidosis in the llama. We submitted the proposal to the Morris
Animal Foundation, where it was reviewed, evaluated, ranked, and funded. (We
wish to thank Andy and Cheryl Tillman for funding this project through the
Morris Animal Foundation.) We are currently running a series of studies to
establish how the disease develops and to characterize the clinical and
biochemical changes so that the condition can be identified at a stage early
enough for treatment. The project at Oregon State University has so far produced
some fascinating results and generated a much better understanding of the
condition.
Conclusions
Hepatic lipidosis is becoming a serious problem.
While we still don’t have the answers, work at Oregon State University is an
important first step in finding a solution. If you have had confirmed camelid
deaths caused by hepatic lipidosis, we would be very interested in hearing from
your veterinarians about these cases. These talks have been very useful in
helping us get a more detailed and complete picture of the problem under field
conditions and a better understanding of the underlying factors involved in the
development of the condition. Confidentiality is maintained at all times.
Contact us at College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, 105
Magruder Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-4802, fax: 541-737-0502.
Copyright © 1998 by Brad Smith, Susan Tornquist, and
Robert Van Saun.
About
the Authors
David E. Anderson, DVM, MS Diplomate ACVS, is an
assistant professor of farm animal medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine,
Ohio State University, Columbus. He has been practicing medicine and surgery and
performing research with llamas and alpacas for 8 years, focusing on
reproduction, nutrition, and metabolic disease, all of which are closely
interrelated. His current six research projects on alpacas and llamas are
directed to developing immediate applications "on the farm."
Brad Smith, DVM, PhD: Oregon State University
Susan Tornquist, DVM, PhD, ACVCP, is the head of
clinical pathology at Oregon State University. She is currently working on two
Morris Animal Foundation grants dealing with camelid health issues.
Bob
Van Saun, DVM, PhD, ACT, ACVN, is a double-board-certified faculty member at
Oregon State University with an interest in nutrition and reproduction. He has
been working with llamas and alpacas for the last 5 years and is involved in
several studies.
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